Identification of protein complexes in Alzheimer's disease

A Doença de Alzheimer (AD) é a maior doença neurodegenerativa a nível mundial, e a principal causa de demência na população idosa. O processamento da proteína precursora de amilóide (APP) pelas β- e g- secretases origina o peptídeo Aβ, que agrega em oligómeros neurotóxicos e em placas senis. Estes são eventos-chave na patogénese da DA que levam à rutura da neurotransmissão sináptica, morte neuronal e inflamação neuronal do hipocampo e córtex cerebral, causando perda de memória disfunção cognitiva geral. Apesar dos grandes avanços no conhecimento do papel do processamento da APP na DA, a sua função fisiológica ainda não foi totalmente elucidada. Os mapas de interações proteína-proteína (PPI) humanos têm desempenhado um papel importante na investigação biomédica, em particular no estudo de vias de sinalização e de doenças humanas. O método dois-híbrido em levedura (YTH) consiste numa plataforma para a produção rápida de redes de PPI em larga-escala. Neste trabalho foram realizados vários rastreios YTH com o objetivo de identificar proteínas específicas de cérebro humano que interagissem com a APP, ou com o seu domínio intracelular (AICD), tanto o tipo selvagem como com os mutantes Y687F, que mimetizam o estado desfosforilado do resíduo Tyr-687. De facto, a endocitose da APP e a produção de Aβ estão dependentes do estado de fosforilação da Tyr-687. Os rastreios YTH permitiram assim obter de redes proteínas que interagem com a APP, utilizando como “isco” a APP, APPY687F e AICDY687F. Os clones positivos foram isolados e identificados através de sequenciação do cDNA. A maior parte dos clones identificados, 118, correspondia a sequências que codificam para proteínas conhecidas, resultando em 31 proteínas distintas. A análise de proteómica funcional das proteínas identificadas neste estudo e em dois projetos anteriores (AICDY687E, que mimetiza a fosforilação, e AICD tipo selvagem), permitiram avaliar a relevância da fosforilação da Tyr-687. Três clones provenientes do rastreio YTH com a APPY687F foram identificados como um novo transcrito da proteína Fe65, resultante de splicing alternativo, a Fe65E3a (GenBank Accession: EF103274), que codifica para a isoforma p60Fe65. A p60Fe65 está enriquecida no cérebro e os seus níveis aumentam durante a diferenciação neuronal de células PC12, evidenciando o potencial papel que poderá desempenhar na patologia da DA. A RanBP9 é uma proteína nuclear e citoplasmática envolvida em diversas vias de sinalização celulares. Neste trabalho caracterizou-se a nova interação entre a RanBP9 e o AICD, que pode ser regulada pela fosforilação da Tyr-687. Adicionalmente, foi identificada uma nova interação entre a RanBP9 e a acetiltransferase de histonas Tip60. Demonstrou-se ainda que a RanBP9 tem um efeito de regulação inibitório na transcrição mediada por AICD, através da interação com a Tip60, afastando o AICD dos locais de transcrição ativos. O estudo do interactoma da APP/AICD, modelado pela fosforilação da Tyr-687, revela que a APP poderá estar envolvida em novas vias celulares, contribuindo não só para o conhecimento do papel fisiológico da APP, como também auxilia a revelar as vias que levam à agregação de Aβ e neurodegeneração. A potencial relevância deste trabalho relaciona-se com a descoberta de algumas interações proteicas/vias de sinalização que podem que podem ser relevantes para o desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas na DA.

Phosphatidylethanolamines glycoxidation: products and significance

As fosfatidiletanolaminas constituem a segunda classe de fosfolípidos mais abundantes nos organismos. Elas estão presentes nas membranas biológicas e nas lipoproteínas. As alterações estruturais dos fosfolípidos, ocorrem devido ao stress oxidativo e podem manisfestar-se em alterações das suas propriedades e funções. Já são conhecidas algumas condições fisiopatológicas, nas quais os fosfolípidos oxidados estão envolvidos, por exemplo sinalização celular, resposta imunitária, apoptose e doenças relacionadas com o envelhecimento. Por esse motivo, o interesse no estudo dos fosfolípidos oxidados e suas funções tem crescido nos últimos anos. Contudo, a maioria dos estudos realizados, focam a oxidação das fosfatidilcolinas, tendo sido dedicada pouca atenção a outras classes de fosfolipídos, como as fosfatidiletanolaminas. As fosfatidiletanolaminas, podem ainda sofrer outras modificações, devido ao grupo amina livre presente na cabeça polar, como por exemplo a glicação. As fosfatidiletanolaminas glicadas já foram detectadas em condições de hiperglicemia, em pacientes diabéticos, e tem correlação com a hemoglobina glicada. Sabe-se que a glicação de biomoléculas, pode aumentar as modificações oxidativas, que por sua vez, podem ser responsáveis pelo estado inflamatório, existente na diabetes mellitus. Tanto o stress oxidativo, como a inflamação estão relacionados com a diabetes e as suas complicações. A espectrometria de massa tem sido utilizada como uma importante tecnologia na detecção e caracterização de modificações oxidativas de fosfolípidos. Assim, neste trabalho pretendeu-se estudar as modificações oxidativas induzidas em fosfatidiletanolaminas glicadas, e os seus efeitos biológicos nos monócitos e células dendríticas do sangue periférico. Pretendeu-se ainda, estudar as alterações que ocorreram nas espécies de fosfatidiletanolaminas do fígado de ratos diabéticos. Os resultados obtidos permitiram identificar vários produtos de oxidação de fosfatidiletanolaminas glicadas, nomeadamente novos produtos formados pela oxidação da cabeça polar glicada. A oxidação na cabeça polar glicada foi, ainda, confirmada pela realização de experiências com spin traps combinadas com espetrometria de massa. Posteriormente, as fosfatidiletanolaminas oxidadas, glicadas e glicoxidadas demonstraram ter efeitos pró-inflamatórios, confirmados pelo aumento da estimulação monócitos e de células dendríticas, expresso no aumento do número de células produtoras de citocinas em comparação com o estado basal. As diferentes modificações de fosfatidiletanolaminas induziram estímulos distintos nos dois tipos de células. Sendo as fosfatidiletanolaminas glicadas e as glicoxidadas, os compostos que induziram um maior estímulo. Estes resultados sugeriram que as fosfatidiletanolaminas glicadas e as glicoxidadas podem estar associadas com o estado inflamatório que decorre da hiperglicemia crónica. Ainda, a avaliação do perfil lipídico de extratos de fígado de ratos diabéticos demonstrou que a hiperglicemia induz inúmeras alterações das espécies de fosfatidiletanolaminas e das espécies de outras classes de fosfolípidos, em simultâneo com sinais de lesão hepática. Em conclusão, este trabalho demonstra a relação existente entre, a hiperglicémia, o stress oxidativo, a glicação e oxidação de fosfatidiletanolaminas e ainda a inflamação e compliações diabéticas. Portanto a contribuição da lipidómica é importante para compreender os efeitos prejudiciais da hiperglicemia não controlada, e por isso, merece ser mais explorado.

NMR in the characterization of heavy residual procedural streams

The main objective of this work was to monitor a set of physical-chemical properties of heavy oil procedural streams through nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, in order to propose an analysis procedure and online data processing for process control. Different statistical methods which allow to relate the results obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with the results obtained by the conventional standard methods during the characterization of the different streams, have been implemented in order to develop models for predicting these same properties. The real-time knowledge of these physical-chemical properties of petroleum fractions is very important for enhancing refinery operations, ensuring technically, economically and environmentally proper refinery operations. The first part of this work involved the determination of many physical-chemical properties, at Matosinhos refinery, by following some standard methods important to evaluate and characterize light vacuum gas oil, heavy vacuum gas oil and fuel oil fractions. Kinematic viscosity, density, sulfur content, flash point, carbon residue, P-value and atmospheric and vacuum distillations were the properties analysed. Besides the analysis by using the standard methods, the same samples were analysed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The second part of this work was related to the application of multivariate statistical methods, which correlate the physical-chemical properties with the quantitative information acquired by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Several methods were applied, including principal component analysis, principal component regression, partial least squares and artificial neural networks. Principal component analysis was used to reduce the number of predictive variables and to transform them into new variables, the principal components. These principal components were used as inputs of the principal component regression and artificial neural networks models. For the partial least squares model, the original data was used as input. Taking into account the performance of the develop models, by analysing selected statistical performance indexes, it was possible to conclude that principal component regression lead to worse performances. When applying the partial least squares and artificial neural networks models better results were achieved. However, it was with the artificial neural networks model that better predictions were obtained for almost of the properties analysed. With reference to the results obtained, it was possible to conclude that nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy combined with multivariate statistical methods can be used to predict physical-chemical properties of petroleum fractions. It has been shown that this technique can be considered a potential alternative to the conventional standard methods having obtained very promising results.

Oxidation and glycoxidation of phosphatidylserine and their effect in immune response : a lipidomic approach

Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a member of the class of phospholipids, and is distributed among all cells of mammalians, playing important roles in diverse biological processes, including blood clotting and apoptosis. When externalized, PS is a ligand that is recognized on apoptotic cells. It has been considered that before externalization PS is oxidized and oxPS enhance the recognition by macrophages receptors, however the knowledge about oxidation of PS is still limited. PS, like others phospholipids, has two fatty acyl chains and one polar head group, in this case is the amino acid serine. The modifications in PS structure can occur by oxidation of the unsaturated fatty acyl chains and by glycation of the polar head group, due to free amine group, thus increasing the susceptibility to oxidative events. The main goal of this work was to characterize and identify oxidized and glycoxidized PS, contributing to the knowledge of the biological role of oxidation products of PS, as well as of glycated PS, in immune and inflammatory processes. To achieve this goal, PS standards (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho- L-serine (POPS), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (DPPS), 1- palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (PLPS) and 1-palmitoyl-2- arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (PAPS)) and glycated PS (PAPS and POPS) were induced to oxidize in model systems, using different oxidant reagents: HO• and 2,2'-azobis-2-methyl-propanimidamide dihydrochloride (AAPH) . The detailed structural characterization of the oxidative products was performed by ESI-MS and MS/MS coupled to separation techniques such as off line TLC-MS and on line LC-MS, in order to obtained better characterization of the larger number of PS and glycated PS oxidation products. The results obtained in this work allowed to identify several oxidation products of PS and glycated PS with modifications in unsaturated fatty acyl chain. Also, oxidation products formed due to structural changes in the serine polar head with formation of terminal acetamide, terminal hydroperoxyacetaldehyde.and terminal acetic acid (glycerophosphacetic acid, GPAA) were identified. The mass spectrometric specific fragmentation pathway of each type of oxidation product was determined using different mass spectrometry approaches. Based on the identified fragmentation pathways, targeted lipidomic analysis was performed to detect oxidation products modified in serine polar head in HaCaT cell line treated with AAPH. The GPAA was detected in HaCaT cells treated with AAPH to induce oxidative stress, thus confirming that modifications in PS polar head is possible to occur in biological systems. Furthermore, it was found that glycated PS species are more prone to oxidative modifications when compared with non glycated PS. During oxidation of glycated PS, besides the oxidation in acyl chains, new oxidation products due to oxidation of the glucose moiety were identified, including PS advanced glycation end products (PSAGES). To investigate if UVA oxidative stress exerted changes in the lipidome of melanoma cell lines, particularly in PS profile, a lipidomic analysis was performed. The lipid profile was obtained using HILIC-LC-MS and GC-MS analysis of the total lipid extracts obtained from human melanoma cell line (SKMEL- 28) after UVA irradiation at 0, 2 and 24 hours. The results did not showed significant differences in PS content. At molecular level, only PS (18:0:18:1) decreased at the moment of irradiation. The most significant changes in phospholipids content occurred in phosphatidylcholines (PC) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) classes, with an increase of mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), similarly as observed for the fatty acid analysis. Overall, these data indicate that the observed membrane lipid changes associated with lipogenesis after UVA exposure may be correlated with malignant transformations associated with cancer development and progression. Despite of UVA radiation is associated with oxidative damage, in this work was not possible observe oxidation phospholipids. The anti/pro-inflammatory properties of the oxidized PLPS (oxPLPS) versus non-oxidized PLPS were tested on LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The modulation of intracellular signaling pathways such as NF-kB and MAPK cascades by oxPLPS and PS was also examined in this study. The results obtained from evaluation of anti/pro-inflammatory properties showed that neither PLPS or oxPLPS species activated the macrophages. Moreover only oxidized PLS were found to significantly inhibit NO production and iNOS and il1β gene transcription induced by LPS. The analysis at molecular level showed that this was the result of the attenuation of LPS-induced c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p65 NF-kB nuclear translocation. Overall these data suggest that oxPLPS, but not native PLPS, mitigates pro-inflammatory signaling in macrophages, contributing to containment of inflammation during apoptotic cell engulfment. The results obtained in this work provides new information on the modifications of PS, facilitating the identification of oxidized species in complex samples, namely under physiopathologic conditions and also contributes to a better understanding of the role of oxPS and PS in the inflammatory response, in the apoptotic process and other biological functions.

Chemokines impact in Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder neuropathologically characterized by the presence of extracellular senile plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and synaptic loss. Neuroinflammation has been associated with some neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD. In AD, increased Aβ production and aggregation, have a fundamental role in the activation of the inflammatory process. In turn, this could be fundamental in the early stages of this pathology, regarding the Aβ clearance and brain protection. However, chronic inflammation leads to an increase of the inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, released by activated microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. The excessive production of these inflammatory components promotes alterations in both amyloid precursor protein (APP) expression and processing, stimulating the increase of Aβ accumulation and abnormal tau phosphorylation. This results in neurotoxic effects, irreversible damage and neuronal loss. Chronic inflammation is a feature of AD however, little is known about the effects of some chemokines on its pathogenesis. Thus, the main aim of this thesis was to study the impact of the interleukin-8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) on apoptosis, APP and tau. The both studied chemokines resulted in small alterations regarding the cytotoxicity on SH-SY5Y differentiated cells, being a significant increase in apoptosis observed only for the MCP-1 at the highest concentration. For the APP processing no significant differences were obtained, although a tendency to increase at different concentrations and periods was registered for both IL-8 and MCP-1. With respect to tau and other cytoskeleton-associated proteins, it was possible to observe a tendency to increase in the phosphorylated residue (Ser396) at the higher concentrations, as well as alterations on actin and tubulin with an increase on acetylated-α tubulin. This effect can be translated by neuronal architectural and survival alterations. Therefore additional studies could contribute to a better understanding of the way that these chemokines act on AD pathogenesis.